The Architecture of El Tajin

The Architecture of El Tajin The once-magnificent city of El Tajin, which flourished not far inland from Mexicos Gulf Coast from roughly 800-1200 A.D., features some truly spectacular architecture. The palaces, temples and ballcourts of the excavated city show impressive architectural details like cornices, inset glyphs and niches. The City of Storms After the fall of Teotihuacan around 650 A.D., El Tajin was one of several powerful city-states that arose in the ensuing vacuum of power. The city flourished from about 800 to 1200 A.D. At one time, the city covered 500 hectares and may have had as many as 30,000 inhabitants; its influence spread throughout Mexicos Gulf Coast region. Their chief God was Quetzalcoatl, whose worship was common in Mesoamerican lands at the time. After 1200 A.D., the city was abandoned and left to return to the jungle: only locals knew about it until a Spanish colonial official stumbled across it in 1785. For the past century, a series of excavation and preservation programs have taken place there, and it is an important site for tourists and historians alike. The City of El Tajin and its Architecture The word Tajà ­n refers to a spirit with great powers over the weather, especially in terms of rain, lightning, thunder and storms. El Tajà ­n was built in the lush, hilly lowlands not far from the Gulf Coast. It is spread out over a relatively spacious area, but hills and arroyos defined the city limits. Much of it may once have been built of wood or other perishable materials: these have been long since lost to the jungle. There are a number of temples and buildings in the Arroyo Group and old ceremonial center and palaces and administrative-type buildings in Tajà ­n Chico, located on a hill to the north of the rest of the city. To the northeast is the impressive Great Xicalcoliuhqui wall. None of the buildings is known to be hollow or to house a tomb of any sort. Most of the buildings and structures are made of a locally available sandstone. Some of the temples and pyramids are built over earlier structures. Many of the pyramids and temples are made of finely carved stone and f illed with packed earth. Architectural Influence and Innovations El Tajin is unique enough architecturally that it has its own style, often referred to as Classic Central Veracruz. Nevertheless, there are some obvious external influences on the architectural style at the site. The overall style of the pyramids at the site is referred to in Spanish as the talà ºd-tablero style (it basically translates as slope/walls). In other words, the overall slope of the pyramid is created by piling progressively smaller square or rectangular levels on top of another. These levels can be quite tall, and there is always a stairway to grant access to the top. This style came to El Tajà ­n from Teotihuacan, but the builders of El Tajin took it further. On many of the pyramids in the ceremonial center, the tiers of the pyramids are adorned with cornices which jut out into space on the sides and corners. This gives the buildings a striking, majestic silhouette. The builders of El Tajà ­n also added niches to the flat walls of the tiers, resulting in a richly textured, dramatic look not seen at Teotihuacan. El Tajin also shows influence from Classic era Maya cities. One notable similarity is the association of altitude with power: in El Tajà ­n, the ruling class built a palace complexes on hills adjacent to the ceremonial center. From this section of the city, known as Tajin Chico, the ruling class gazed down upon the homes of their subjects and the pyramids of the ceremonial district and the Arroyo Group. In addition, building 19 is a pyramid which features four stairways to the top, on in each cardinal direction. This is similar to el Castillo or the Temple of Kukulcan in Chichà ©n Itz, which likewise has four stairways.   Another innovation at El Tajà ­n was the idea of plaster ceilings. Most of the structures at the top of pyramids or on finely built bases were constructed of perishable materials such as wood, but there is some evidence in the Tajà ­n Chico area of the site that some of the ceilings may have been made of a heavy plaster. Even the ceiling at the Building of the Columns may have had an arched plaster ceiling, as archaeologists discovered large blocks of convex, polished blocks of plaster there. Ballcourts of El Tajn The ballgame was of paramount importance to the people of El Tajà ­n. No fewer than seventeen ballcourts have been found so far at El Tajà ­n, including several in and around the ceremonial center. The usual shape of a ball court was that of a double T: a long narrow area in the middle with an open space at either end. At El Tajà ­n, buildings and pyramids were often constructed in such a way that they would naturally create courts between them. For example, one of the ballcourts in the ceremonial center is defined on either side by Buildings 13 and 14, which were designed for spectators. The south end of the ballcourt, however, is defined by Building 16, an early version of the Pyramid of the Niches. One of the most striking structures at El Tajin is the South Ballcourt. This was obviously the most important one, as it is decorated with six marvelous panels carved in bas-relief. These show scenes from the ceremonious ballgames including human sacrifice, which often was the result of one of the games. The Niches of El Tajin The most remarkable innovation of El Tajà ­ns architects was the niches so common at the site. From the rudimentary ones at Building 16 to the magnificence of the Pyramid of the Niches, the sites best-known structure, niches are everywhere at El Tajà ­n. The niches of El Tajà ­n are small recesses set into the exterior walls of the tiers of several pyramids on the site. Some of the niches in Tajà ­n Chico have a spiral-like design in them: this was one of the symbols of Quetzalcoatl. The best example of the importance of the Niches at El Tajin is the impressive Pyramid of the Niches. The pyramid, which sits on a square base, has exactly 365 deep-set, well-designed niches, suggesting that it was a place where the sun was worshiped. It was once dramatically painted to heighten the contrast between the shady, recessed niches and the faces of the tiers; the interior of the niches was painted black, and the surrounding walls red. On the stairway, there were once six platform-altars (only five remain). Each of these altars features three small niches: this adds up to eighteen niches, possibly representing the Mesoamerican solar calendar, which had eighteen months. Importance of Architecture at El Tajin The architects of El Tajin were very skilled, using advances such as cornices, niches, cement and plaster to make their buildings, which were brightly, dramatically painted to great effect. Their skill is also evident in the simple fact that so many of their buildings have survived to the present day, although the archaeologists who restored the magnificent palaces and temples surely helped. Unfortunately for those who study the City of Storms, relatively few records remain of the people who lived there. There are no books and no direct accounts by anyone who ever had direct contact with them. Unlike the Maya, who were fond of carving glyphs with names, dates and information into their stone artwork, the artists of El Tajin rarely did so. This lack of information makes the architecture that much more important: it is the best source of information about this lost culture. Sources: Coe, Andrew. . Emeryville, CA: Avalon Travel Publishing, 2001. Ladrà ³n de Guevara, Sara. El Tajin: La Urbe que Representa al Orbe. Mexico: Fondo de Cultura Economica, 2010. Solà ­s, Felipe. El Tajà ­n. Mà ©xico: Editorial Mà ©xico Desconocido, 2003. Wilkerson, Jeffrey K. Eighty Centuries of Veracruz. National Geographic 158, No. 2 (August 1980), 203-232. Zaleta, Leonardo. Tajà ­n: Misterio y Belleza. Pozo Rico: Leonardo Zaleta 1979 (2011).

Human Resource Information Systems Assignment (Please answer the

Human Resource Information Systems (Please answer the following 11questions) - Assignment Example SAP R/3 costs are associated with a number of variables. The timeframe will determine the total costs of maintaining, implementing and training procedures. Another variable is the number of people and hardware which will be required for the entire project. 2. Describe how existing history is extracted and imported to your system at conversion. Batch input is a major method to ensure the extraction and import of existing history. It is instrumental for transferring huge amounts of data (Rebstock & Knut, 45). The primary feature of this method is that it does not require maximum attention. Direct input is another method which is a modification of the batch input process. It helps to ensure efficient extraction and import of history. There are no additional fees related to the process of converting history in the SAP R/3 HR Module. The costs are included in the standard package that includes installation, configuration, and maintenance of the system. 4. Define the historical information your system maintains and how long it is available to your customers. Historical information is maintained in an efficient and effective manner by SAP R/3. This is done by integration with specific databases in the system. It can be used to ensure availability of data to clients for a long period. SAP R/3 has a dynamic employee self-service functionality system. It improves productivity and output while creating a responsive system. Information accessibility has been significantly enhanced through this feature. The organization can reduce costs through the display of relevant and appropriate information. This creates a true paperless environment that eliminates the costs associated with paper (Hernandez, Martinez & Keogh, 56). Personal information about remunerations and bonuses can be accessed by employees. Finally the system helps to streamline and automate the HR systems. SAP R/3 HR Module can

Situational Analysis - Obamas Inaugural Speech Essay

Situational Analysis - Obamas Inaugural Speech - Essay Example He gives hope for the dwindling economic throttle hold which has seen the deterioration of health, education, business, and employment sector as a result of greed, the irresponsibility of a few and the collective failure to make hard choices. To tackle the war, President Obama promises that America will responsibly withdraw its forces from Iraq and also â€Å"forge a hard-earned peace in Afghanistan† and to work tirelessly with â€Å"old friends and former foes to lessen the nuclear threat, and roll back the specter of a warming planet†. Obama, the first African American president, is addressing an audience drawn from all races at a time when the whole world is experiencing economic problems or war of a kind. The words must be well selected so as to appeal and put insight into the audience but not to provoke hard feelings from â€Å"old friends and former foes.† He must also bear in mind the millions of non-Americans listening to his speech, anxiously waiting for his remarks on the nuclear menace and war at large. America being the superpower and being at the watch by the world, his speech has to be well articulated. He has to tackle for instance terrorism and religious schisms well, in an attempt to unite the world once more. He does this by speaking directly to the people, the Muslim world, current leadership around the world, poor nations as well as prosperous nations. Being an African American, he has to address the issue of racism well, as this vice previously blackened the American History.

The learning transfer practices at Camair-Co Dissertation

The learning transfer practices at Camair-Co - Dissertation Example However, the behavioural as well as cognitive traits perceived by the learners should also be considered as vital in this context as these factors also have a substantial impact on the overall efficiency of the learning transfer process. Acknowledgements Firstly, I would like to thank all the employees at Camair-Co who offered their cooperation, understanding and time when I was carrying out my research. I also extend my appreciation to my friends and family for being so supportive while I was completing this study. Finally, I offer my sincere thanks to God, for giving me the strength, perseverance and confidence to make all this possible. Table of Contents (INCLUDE WORD COUNT) Chapter 1 – Introduction 309 words (300) 1.1 Background Camair-Co is the national airline of the Republic of Cameroon that is based in Douala. The company offers passenger and cargo transportation to visiting friends and relatives, Government, NGOs and traders (History, 2011) Camair-Co employs 438 perso nnel comprising of both national and foreign expertise. Subedi (2004) suggests that a diverse workforce can raise significant challenges for the organisation in the execution of its learning or training transfer process (Subedi, 2004). Within today’s competitive business environment, strong talent is critical to the success of organisations. Consequently, management must ensure all employees are empowered through training to effectively transfer knowledge and skills back to the work place. 1.2 Statement of the problem Training activities at Camair-Co include on and off the job training. However, there is no evidence to suggest that the transfer of learning is... The paper tells that the notion behind the transfer of learning contributes significantly towards making the workforce effective. 10% of the overall staff salary at Camair-Co is spent on developing capabilities through training, learning and other development initiatives. In the writer’s experience, the most successful organisations have consistently invested a lot of money in training and developing their people however, evidence suggests the value derived from the training spend is not as encouraging. Only 10% and 34% of skills and knowledge gained from training is still applied by employees on-the-job a year later. Given the alarming statistics by researchers and the large amounts of money involved, monitoring and closing any gaps between what is invested and what is returned is critical. According to Cree & Macaulay, transfer of learning has been referred to the process of earlier learning which influences improved performance or learning. The transfer of learning is said to entail skills acquisition and knowledge gained in training that is transferred back to the job, as well as maintenance of the learned material over a period of time on-the-job. Broad & Newstrom describe it as ‘the effective and continuing application, by trainees to their jobs, of the knowledge and skills gained in training – both on and off the job’. This concept is of particular importance among organisations that seek to ensure peak performance amongst individuals and the organisation. Rothwell & Sredi assert that the transfer of learning also facilitates the organisations in the development of competitive advantage.

Effects of Bullying and Strategies for Bullying Prevention

Effects of Bullying and Strategies for Bullying Prevention Learning outcome 5 (5.1) Different types of bullying Bullying can have a wide range of negative effects on a child. It can happen at any age, any time and in many forms, not only face to face but also via mobile phones and online. The table below shows the different types of bullying and the effects. Reference/bibliography www.bullying.co.uk (5.2) Effects of bullying on children and young people The different types of bullying that have been identified in the table (physical, emotional, verbal, non-verbal, racial, and sexual and cyber) can have a wide range of effects on children and young people, which include the following. Changes in eating habits (reluctance to eat or binge eating) Reluctance to go to school (making up excuses that are made up such as stomach aches and feeling ill and playing truancy) Withdrawn behaviour and reluctance to communicate Seem upset and distressed Their belongings stolen or damaged whilst at school (ripped school uniform or bag or broken equipment) Physical injuries (may not always be visible e.g. hair pulling etc) Might have trouble sleeping Afraid to be on their own or spends too much time alone The effects of bullying can last a lifetime and have the flowing effects. Self harming (cutting wrists, scratching, hair loss, etc) Suicide Abuse alcohol and other drugs in adolescence and as adults Getting into fights, vandalizing property, and dropping out of school Getting into gangs/ gang fights Socialising with wrong members of the public (drug dealers) Engage in early sexual activity (for females become pregnant at a young age) Have criminal convictions Being abusive towards their partners, spouses or children as adults Children who witness bullying are more likely to do the following. Have increased use of drugs, alcohol, tobacco, and other drugs Have increased mental health problems, including depression and anxiety Miss or skip school which effects their education Responding to evidence of bullying Clear policies and procedures should be followed in the school setting when an allegation has been made or evidence of bullying has been seen. Each school setting will have a anti-bullying and behaviour policy in place outlining what constitutes bullying and the standard of behaviour that is expected in the school. Anti bullying policy The anti bullying policy will set out a definition of what constitutes bullying and the different types of bullying that can be experienced. I will include the following. Unacceptable behaviour and definitions of this The responsibilities that the school holds for ensuring that action is taken if allegations are made or bullying is suspected Responsibilities of staff and governors Pupils have the right to learn free from intimidation and fear The needs of the victim are paramount School’s will not tolerate bullying behaviour Bullied pupils will be listened to Reported incidents would be taken seriously and thoroughly investigated Behaviour policy The behaviour policy will usually set out the rule and responsibilities of children and teachers within the school setting and the types of behaviour that are not acceptable. It will show the consequences of non-compliance and the procedures that will be followed if unacceptable behaviour takes place. Policies and procedures should come into force to ensure that bullying is stopped, and to make sure it does not happen again. The victim should have a meeting with the teacher to put together strategies in case the situation occurs again Point out that the behaviour that has occurred is unacceptable, and provide information how they are going to be monitored Meeting with staff and other children who have witnessed the bullying should take place to obtain additional evidence Consider if external agencies should get involved Make use of curriculum to restore self esteem in the victim and to discuss bullying and unacceptable behaviour Behaviour policy for schools would include the following. To create a consistent environment that expects, encourages and recognises good behaviour and one in which everyone feels happy and safe To help pupils develop self respect, self control and accountability for their own behaviour To encourage the partnership between home and school Staff responsibilities To role model good behaviour and positive relationships To emphasise the importance of values and being valued To provide an effective learning and teaching environment To encourage positive relationships based on kindness, empathy and respect To ensure fair treatment for all regardless of ability, age, sex, or race Show appreciation of the efforts and contributions of everyone Children should learn to expect recognition for positive behaviour and fair and consistency applied consequences for inappropriate behaviour. Recognition and praise should be given where ever possible for both work and behaviour. These recognitions and praise could be the following. Stickers for good behaviour (warn by the child) Positive recognition to parents for good behaviour House points awarded Good behaviour notes sent home by parents Certificates (presented in assembly) All these policies and procedures are in place to ensure the school’s expectations and standards are met. All school’s have policies and procedures in place to support staff and children from situations such as bullying to provide a safe and secure environment for the children to learn and be happy in. children should have the right to learn in a safe, secure and anti-bullying environment and these policies help children from doing that. Behaviour policies also help in the school setting by encouraging children and staff to behave how they should and be treated how they would like to be treated I appositive way. Reference/bibliography www.stopbulkying.gov.uk (5.3) Supporting a child when bullying is suspected or alleged Within a school setting there are policies and procedures in place for the correct procedure to be followed if a child is being bullied or if bullying is suspected. As a support assistant it is very important that they are approachable so that children feel able to confide any instances of bullying. Some children who are being bullied would find it difficult and would be scared to share their feelings and to report the bullying. It is important to reassure the children that they have done the right thing in reporting the bullying, and that they will be 100% supported now that the bullying has been disclosed. Parents should be made aware of the school behaviour and anti-bullying policies to inform them of their child’s rights and the ways that the school can support them. When dealing with a child who is being bullied they can be upset but may not show their feelings. It is very important to take the problem seriously. The child has to be listened to and re-assured that they are doing the right thing by sharing their worries and feelings. For parents the signs to look out for if a child is being bullied are. Coming home with damaged or missing clothes, without money they should have, or with scratches or bruises they shouldn’t have Having trouble with homework for no apparent reason Using a different route between home and school Feeling irritable, easily upset or particularly emotional What can you do if you suspect a child is being bullied? Reference/bibliography www.nhs.uk www.bullying.co.uk

The Role of Women in The Canterbery Tales :: Canterbury Tales Essays

The Role of Women in The Canterbery Tales Chaucer, in his female pilgrimage thought of women as having an evil-like quality that they always tempt and take from men. They were depicted as untrustworthy, selfish and vain and often like caricatures not like real people at all. Through the faults of both men and women, Chaucer showed what is right and wrong and how one should live. Under the surface, however, lies a jaded look of women in the form that in his writings he seems to crate them as caricatures and show how they cause the downfall of men by sometimes appealing to their desires and other times their fears. Chaucer obviously had very opinionated views of the manners and behaviours of women and expressed it strongly in The Canterbury Tales. In his collection of tales, he portrayed two extremes in his prospect of women. The Wife of Bath represented the extravagant and lusty woman where as the Prioress represented the admirable and devoted followers of church. Chaucer delineated the two characters contrastingl y in their appearances, general manners, education and most evidently in their behaviour towards men. Yet, in the midst of disparities, both tales left its readers with an unsolved enigma. The Wife of Bath represents the "liberal" extreme in regards to female stereotypes of the Middle Ages. Unlike most women being anonymous during the Middle Ages, she has a mind of her own and voices herself. Furthermore, she thinks extremely highly of herself and enjoys showing off her Sunday clothes whenever the opportunity arises. She intimidates men and women alike due to the power she possesses. Because of her obnoxious attitude Chaucer makes her toothless, fat and large. Doubtlessly, she is very ugly, almost to the point of "not-presentable. This to me shows how Chaucer depicts what men don't want. The Prioress, on the other hand, serves as a foil to the Wife of Bath. Chaucer describes her as "tender-hearted" who cannot bear the sight of pain or physical suffering. She will cry at the thought of a dog dying. It could represent that she has a frail soul with low tolerance for pain and suffering. The latter description carries over into the modern stereotypes about wome n as skittish and afraid members of society who need to be cared for. The Role of Women in The Canterbery Tales :: Canterbury Tales Essays The Role of Women in The Canterbery Tales Chaucer, in his female pilgrimage thought of women as having an evil-like quality that they always tempt and take from men. They were depicted as untrustworthy, selfish and vain and often like caricatures not like real people at all. Through the faults of both men and women, Chaucer showed what is right and wrong and how one should live. Under the surface, however, lies a jaded look of women in the form that in his writings he seems to crate them as caricatures and show how they cause the downfall of men by sometimes appealing to their desires and other times their fears. Chaucer obviously had very opinionated views of the manners and behaviours of women and expressed it strongly in The Canterbury Tales. In his collection of tales, he portrayed two extremes in his prospect of women. The Wife of Bath represented the extravagant and lusty woman where as the Prioress represented the admirable and devoted followers of church. Chaucer delineated the two characters contrastingl y in their appearances, general manners, education and most evidently in their behaviour towards men. Yet, in the midst of disparities, both tales left its readers with an unsolved enigma. The Wife of Bath represents the "liberal" extreme in regards to female stereotypes of the Middle Ages. Unlike most women being anonymous during the Middle Ages, she has a mind of her own and voices herself. Furthermore, she thinks extremely highly of herself and enjoys showing off her Sunday clothes whenever the opportunity arises. She intimidates men and women alike due to the power she possesses. Because of her obnoxious attitude Chaucer makes her toothless, fat and large. Doubtlessly, she is very ugly, almost to the point of "not-presentable. This to me shows how Chaucer depicts what men don't want. The Prioress, on the other hand, serves as a foil to the Wife of Bath. Chaucer describes her as "tender-hearted" who cannot bear the sight of pain or physical suffering. She will cry at the thought of a dog dying. It could represent that she has a frail soul with low tolerance for pain and suffering. The latter description carries over into the modern stereotypes about wome n as skittish and afraid members of society who need to be cared for.

Milk Research Essay

Milk is ancient as mankind itself; many centuries ago humans learned how to consume the milk of other mammals following the domestication of different species of animals. These included cows, sheep, buffaloes, goats and camels, all still used today for human consumption. This development occurred independently in several parts of the world starting in Southwest Asia perhaps as early as 8000-6000 BC. In 1863 a great invention, the pasteurization, allowed to kill harmful bacteria in milk and milk products while in 1884 an American inventor, Hervey Thatcher, invented the first glass milk bottle (called â€Å"Thatcher’s Common Sense Milk Jar). The first plastic-coated bottles were introduced commercially in 1932. CONSUMPION WORLDWIDE Today there are more than 6 billion consumers of milk and milk products throughout the world even if the role of milk in the traditional diet is greatly different among regions; the majority of the consumers are in the developing countries but milk and its derivatives have not been a traditional food in tropical countries as they have been in northern regions of the world (Europe and North America). The reason for that is primary the difference in temperatures and in the possibilities of refrigeration. It is estimated that 12 to 14 percent of the world population, more than 750 million people, live within dairy farming households; for all these reason and for its prospective important role in improving nutrition, particularly in developing countries, milk is a good medium to reduce poverty and malnutrition in the world. As said before the total milk consumption, as fluid milk and its products, per person is not homogeneously distributed in the world even if the trend descript before is going to change and the market for milk is expanding in several places worldwide: over the past two decades, all developing country regions have seen an expansion in per capita consumption of dairy products. Increasing affluence in developing countries has led to a rise of milk consumption in recent years and these growing markets have attracted investment by multinational dairy firms; however, production in the majority of these countries remains on a small scale. Per Capita consumption of Milk and Milk products in various countries, 2006 data. | Country| Liquid Milk Drinks (Litres)| Cheeses (kg)| Butter (kg)| Finland| 183. 9| 19. 1| 5. 3| Sweden| 145. 5| 18. 5| 1. 0| Ireland| 129. 8| 10. 5| 2. 9| Netherlands| 122. 9| 20. 4| 3. 3| Norway| 116. 7| 16. 0| 4. 3| Spain (2005)| 119. 1| 9. 6| 1. 0| Switzerland| 112. 5| 22. 2| 5. 6| United Kingdom (2005)| 111. 2| 12. 2| 3. 7| Australia (2005)| 106. 3| 11. 7| 3. 7|. Canada (2005)| 94. 7| 12. 2| 3. 3| European Union (25 countries)| 92. 6| 18. 4| 4. 2| Germany| 92. 3| 22. 4| 6. 4| France| 92. 2| 23. 9| 7. 3| New Zealand (2005)| 90. 0| 7. 1| 6. 3| United States| 83. 9| 16. 0| 2. 1| Austria| 80. 2| 18. 8| 4. 3| Greece| 69. 0| 28. 9| 0. 7| Argentina (2005)| 65. 8| 10. 7| 0. 7| Italy| 57. 3| 23. 7| 2. 8| Mexico| 40. 7| 2. 1| N/A| China (2005)| 8. 8| N/A| N/A| | | | | Source: International Dairy Federation, Bulletin 423/2007. | PRODUCTION In 2010 the largest producer of milk and milk products was India followed by USA, China, Germany, Pakistan and Russia. The 27 countries of the European Union together produced about 138 million tones of milk in 2011. India is also the largest consumer of milk, yet neither exports nor imports milk. On the other hand New Zealand, The EU 27 member states, Australia and the US are the world’s largest exporters while China and Russia are the world’s largest importers of milk and milk products. Dairy and other livestock products have a high income-elasticity of demand, especially at low income levels. This means that increases in income leads to large increases in demand for these products. This analysis explains why milk and dairy consumption has increased so much in developing countries, as the GDP per capita has grown, and help to understand the production pattern that we see in these years. In fact, developing country growth in demand for and consumption of milk has been matched by increasing production and their production growth has significantly outpaced that of developed countries. Since the late 1980s a great part of the production growth has been concentrated in the developing countries. However, there are differences between developed and developing countries; most milk in developing countries is still produced in a small scale system with little or no mechanization or new technological innovations, although large-scale units can be found also in developing countries. The real growth pole of milk production in the developing countries has been South Asia, which has seen continuous and sustained growth in production. Today, India alone is responsible for almost a third of developing country production and 16% of global production. Latin America and the Caribbean is the second-largest regional producer, but with production having expanded at a slower rate than in South Asia. East and Southeast Asia, and especially China, has seen production grow at an extremely rapid pace over the past decade, but the region’s production levels are still far short of those of South Asia and Latin America. To summarize, the major milk production regions are: * South Asia: 23 percent of global production, mainly India and Pakistan. * EU-25: 21 percent, mainly Germany and France. * USA: 12 percent. * CIS: 10 percent, mainly the Russian Federation and Ukraine. * Latin America: 10 percent, mainly Argentina, Brazil, Colombia and Mexico. * East and Southeast Asia: 8 percent, mainly China and Japan. * Africa: 5 percent ? the largest milk-producing countries are Egypt, Kenya, South Africa and Sudan. * Oceania: 4 percent. * Near and Middle East: 4 percent, mainly Iran and Turkey. Production of the top five countries Cow milk dominates global commercial production: in 2011 FAO estimates that 85% of all milk worldwide was produced from cows. United States is the biggest cow milk producer, accounting for 14. 6% of world production, followed by India and China. For the last fifty years, the dairy sector in most developed countries has shifted towards bigger herd size and significantly higher annual milk production per cow. According to the International Committee for Animal Recording (ICAR) the herd size in developed countries in the period between 2001 and 2007 went from 74 to 99 cows per herd in 17 countries covering Europe, Asia, Australia and North America. However, there is a large variation among countries, ranging from 19 cows per herd in Norway to 337 on average in New Zealand. Annual milk production in the same period increased from 7,726 to 8,550 kg per recorded cow in these countries. The highest average production was obtained in Israel, amounting to 12,546 kg per cow, and the lowest in New Zealand with 3,974 kg per cow. This reflects different production systems. The system in New Zealand is based on all year grazing in contrast to Israel, where the system is based on in barn feeding with energy-rich total mixed rations. PRODUCTION OUTLOOK FOR NEXT YEARS World milk production in 2012 is forecast to grow by 2. 7 percent to 750 million tons. Asia is expected to account for most of the increase, with output in India forecast to rise by 5. 2 million tons to 12. 7 million tons. Dynamic domestic demand is the main engine stimulating growth, as India is largely absent from the international market for dairy products. An increased output is also expected in China, Pakistan and Turkey as the demand continues to increase. High rates of growth in production are expected in New Zealand and Australia as well, in order of 9% and 4% respectively. In the European Union the growth in milk output is expected to moderate in 2012–13 in response to lower profitability but production is projected to increase over the medium term. While the EU milk quota will increase by 1 per cent a year through to 2013–14 before complete removal of quotas from 1 April 2015, the quotas are unlikely to be a binding constraint on production. Over the past two years EU milk production was 6 to 7 per cent below the overall quota and production is expected to remain below quota until 2014–15. For what concern the trade of milk, Asia will continue to be the main market, with additional demand expected to come from countries such as China. Elsewhere, imports by Egypt may also grow, as could by Mexico and Venezuela. However, imports by Brazil may decrease, due to rising domestic milk production. Great increase in availabilities from pasture-based production in Argentina, New Zealand and Uruguay could stimulate their exports to rise by 12,8 and 5 percent respectively. The other principal trading countries as Australia, Belarus, the EU and the United States are anticipated to maintain their sales levels. INTERNATIONAL TRADE OF MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS Global trade in dairy products has increased significantly in value and volume terms over the last decades. Between 1980 and 2008, the volume of total dairy exports (expressed in milk equivalents) more than doubled, from 41. 7 million tons to 92. 2. Also the share in volume terms of production that enters international trade increased, from 8. 5 percent to 12. 6 percent for dairy products, (whit an annual growth in exports of 2. 9%), reflecting the increasing degree of openness to trade of the sector and influenced by heavy use of export subsidies, which supported shipments of developed countries’ dairy exports. However, due to the non-durable nature of dairy products, the share of output that is traded internationally still remains relatively low. The major part of dairy products are consumed within the country of production and do not be traded. In fact a few countries have a milk-surplus (Argentina, Australia, New Zealand, USA, Uruguay, countries of the EU and Eastern Europe while in most regions imports exceed exports, like in Algeria, China, Japan, Mexico, the Philippines and Russia. It is estimated that only around 6% of milk is traded across borders. Milk is mainly traded in the form of butter, milk powder and cheese, but also as concentrated milk, casein and butter oils. The EU and New Zealand are the biggest exporters of dairy products; major importers include China, Mexico, Japan, Algeria, Russia, Philippines and Saudi Arabia. Producer prices for milk differ significantly around the world: Latin America, South Asia and New Zealand are low cost producers; countries such as the EU and US are high cost producers like Switzerland, Norway and Canada. Over 90% of milk production in New Zealand is exported, and therefore milk prices in New Zealand provide a good indication of the prices on the world market. Traditionally, the milk price in New Zealand was about half the European milk price even if today EU milk prices are not that much above the New Zealand benchmark. International dairy trade pattern has traditionally been composed of exports from developed countries (EU, New Zealand, Australia, USA) to developing countries (China, Mexico, Algeria, Russia, Philippines, Saudi Arabia). New Zealand exports mainly to Asia, while EU exports mainly to Russia, North Africa and the Middle East. Although milk production is growing rapidly in many developing countries, so is domestic demand; thus only a few developing countries, probably in Latin America (Argentina, Brazil) are expected to become significant exporters of dairy products in the near future. TOP EXPORTERS Oceania: New Zealand and Australia (Oceania) presence on the international dairy markets has increased considerably after the elimination of domestic support and deregulation, but also after reduced market participation of some traditional exporters (notably from the EU). The global export market share of Oceania has risen from 20% in the 1980s to more than 40% today. The region has become an important driver of global dairy markets. NEW ZEALAND. In New Zealand the production of milk has been constantly raising until 17,895 tons in 2011. New Zealand produces about 2% of total world production at around 16 billion liters every year (New Zealand dairy production has risen 77% over the past 20 years) but, unlike most other countries, around 95% of its dairy production is exported rather than consumed by the domestic market. New Zealand is the major exporter of butter, with almost 44% of global exports and the major overall net exporter of dairy products whit a share of 35% of total trade. New Zealand is also an important exporter of skim and whole milk powders, contributing about 27% and 38%, respectively, of world trade. New Zealand dairy exports go to 151 countries; the key markets are China, the US, Japan and the EU. Production of milk, New Zealand New Zealand’s key export destinations AUSTRALIA Over the past two decades Australian milk production has been well above that volume required for domestic consumption, so that a significant proportion is destined for export markets. The share of total production exported has ranged from 40% to 60%. In the last three years Australia exported around 45% of its milk production which is the lowest proportion since the mid-1990s; so although Australia accounts for an estimated 2% of the world’s milk production, ranks third in terms of world dairy trade, with a 10% share, behind the European Union and New Zealand. Japan is the single most important export market for Australia, accounting for 19% of exports by value. Australian exports are concentrated in Asia, which represented 72% of the total dairy exports value of A$2. 4 billion in 2009/10. Australia’s top five export markets by volume in 2009/10 were Japan, Singapore, China, Indonesia and the Philippines. The fastest growing export market for Australia has been China. Production of milk, Australia EUROPEAN UNION European union accounts for 32% on the total trade of dairy products. The largest dairy products manufacturing sectors in terms of value added generated in 2006 were found in France (EUR 3. 2 billion), Germany (EUR 2. 6 billion) and Italy (EUR 2. 5 billion); together these three States contributed almost half (48. 1 %) of the EU-27’s value added. The dairy products manufacturing sectors of the United Kingdom and Spain were also relatively large; they accounted for a combined 18. 4 % of EU-27 output in 2005. Output grew at a faster rate than the EU-27 average in the three largest dairy producing countries during the ten-year period through to 2007. The strongest rates of growth, however, were recorded for Poland (on average rising by 4. 5 % per year) and Latvia (3. 0 % per year). Main trading partners of EU exports UNITED STATES The U. S. dairy industry is the sixth largest in the world in terms of milk production and represents more than 10% of the total world milk production in 2010. In terms of trade, around 13 percent of U. S. milk production was sold overseas in 2010. The total production is 193 billion pounds. In 2010, U. S. exports of cheese, total whey products, lactose and other dairy products were valued at $3. 71 billion, up 63 percent from the prior year. Export volume totaled 3. 04 billion pounds of U. S. U. S. dairy imports increased 2 percent in 2010 to $2. 60 billion. On a volume (total solids) basis, imports were the lowest since 1997. Export volume was more than four times the level of imports. Mexico, Southeast Asia and Canada are the main destinations for U. S. dairy products. In 2010, 12. 8% of U. S. milk production was sold overseas. On the other hand, New Zealand, Canada and Italy are the top three countries selling dairy products to the U. S. IMPORTERS Value of dairy products imports worldwide Major dairy products importers CHINA China has become a significant importer since 2009; for example it accounts for around 25% of world trade in whole milk powder (2011). This increase in imports has been driven by strong growth in domestic demand for dairy products and consumer concerns about the safety of domestically produced. Over the medium-term, China is expected to remain a significant importer of dairy products with a projected rise in milk production unlikely to match the expected growth in domestic demand. Chinese milk production has partially recovered since 2008 and is forecast to rise by 5% in 2012 to around 32. 2 million tons. While New Zealand is expected to remain the largest exporter of milk powders to China, the United States has the potential to expand its exports of skim milk powder to this market over the medium-term. China is likely to remain an important market for Australian exports of whole milk powder and cheese. RUSSIA Russia is expected to remain a significant importer of dairy products with further growth in domestic demand and limited increases in milk production. In 2011 Russia imported 130 000 tons of butter and 315 000 tons of cheese. TRADE POLICIES Developed countries have tended to protect and subsidize agricultural producers through various trade and agricultural policy instruments. Milk has been no exception and has indeed been one of the agricultural product which has seen the highest level of subsidies and protection, measured by the nominal rate of assistance (NRA). The NRA is an indicator that measures the percentage by which government policies have raised gross returns to farmers above what they would have been without government intervention. TRADE POLICIES (IMPORT) Many countries introduced measures to limit dairy imports. Brazil in 2004 decided to extend for an indefinite time the minimum export price requirement for imports from Argentina and Uruguay which was put in place in 2001. The extension was supported by Brazilian milk producers and opposed by the dairy industries of Argentina and Uruguay. In 2002, Colombia introduced a ban on imports of milk powder that was continued until April 2004. The government is following a policy of prohibiting imports and encouraging exports to support the national dairy sector. In recent years, difficulties have arisen with trade in milk powder with Venezuela which is a traditional market for Colombia. TRADE POLICIES (EXPORT) Following the fall in international prices from 2001, a number of countries raised subsidies on exports, in order to allow their domestic industries to compete on the world market. In the case of the EU and the United States, subsidies rose significantly during most of 2002. Towards the end 2002 and for 2003, the level of export subsidies by the United States fell as international prices rose. In the EU, export subsidies remained high principally as a result of appreciation of the Euro. BILATERAL AND MULTILATERAL TRADE ARRANGEMENTS Australia and Thailand finalized a Free Trade Agreement in 2005 which cut tariffs for Australian dairy products. The agreement maintains restricted quota entry for dairy products but progressive access to Australian exports are allow over a 20 years period. United States concluded free-trade agreements with several Central American countries (Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras and Nicaragua) and the Dominican Republic. The countries involved will gain greater access to the US market, while many US exports will receive duty free treatment. Chile has signed a number of bi-lateral free trade agreements which include market access quotas for dairy products. These were signed with the United States, the European Union, and the Korean Republic. The agreements provide for annually increasing duty-free quota access and progressively reduced duties on out-of-quota exports. Russia and New Zealand signed a bilateral trade agreement in 2003. The agreement sets maximum levels for tariffs on dairy imports and provides security for New Zealand’s dairy access should Russia join the WTO. POLITICAL ISSUE: THE EU DAIRY REGIME Milk production comprises around 13% of the EU’s total agricultural production. The EU’s export surplus is small, around 5% of total production but accounts for around one-third of total world exports. The EU milk price is supported through high tariffs and export subsidies. High tariffs mean that the EU market for dairy products is effectively closed to imports from third countries. Reliance on export subsidies has been reduced in recent years as world market prices for dairy products have firmed and the EU specializes more in the export of higher-value cheese. However, they were temporarily re-introduced in 2009 as a mechanism to support milk prices in response to the very low prices in that year. Since 1984, the volume of milk produced in the EU has been limited by a quota although in recent years EU production has been below the quota ceiling. This quota arrangement is due to be eliminated from 2015. Simulations of the consequences of liberalizing the EU dairy market have been complicated by the simultaneous existence of high supported prices (which stimulate production) and the quota policy (which limits production). Some studies concluded that EU liberalization (defined as eliminating both protection and quotas) would result in increased EU production and net exports; others find that the protective effect of import tariffs outweighs the supply-constraining effect of quotas and that full liberalization would result in lower EU production and net exports. It seems now that the two policy changes will not occur simultaneously. The decision to abolish quotas from 2015 is now an EU commitment, while tariff changes will not happen now. The most recent simulation study of quota abolition for the Commission, estimates that it will lead to an increase of milk production of 4-5%, with a consequent fall in internal EU prices of around 10% (IPTS 2009). Other observers note that many Member States no longer are filling their quotas. With lower internal prices and demand growth within the EU, they expect quota abolition in 2015 to have only a limited impact on EU milk supply (OECD/FAO 2010). Quota elimination without reducing or removing the protective effect of EU tariffs means that EU dairy production will be higher, and consumption of dairy products lower. This will amplify the EU milk surplus and depress the level of EU imports, and thus depress world market prices below the level they would otherwise be. EU high value cheese exports have a global market, but milk powder exports are sold mainly to developing countries (North Africa, Middle East and Sub-Saharan Africa). In many African countries, EU competition has been criticized for undermining dairy development. Imports of milk powder were seen as responsible for the failed attempts to establish dairy plants to provide the national market with milk, butter and other basic products. On the other hand someone says that EU imports increase the availability of dairy products and benefit consumers who might not otherwise be able to access to dairy products. In many African countries domestic supply cannot satisfy the growing domestic demand. Products based on imported milk powder often target a different market segment to that served by the local informal dairy sector. Processing plants built initially to handle imported powder can also act as a stimulus to the development of a local dairy industry. The truth might between these two opinions: given the actual local production and the low purchasing power of people, imported milk and dairy products are in the short term the only possible way to provide population’s request. High costs of production and inefficient marketing channels make local fresh milk more expensive than imported one. At the same time the existence of cheap dairy imports discourages processing plants from investing in local milk collection. By only reducing EU dairy exports to Africa African dairy production would not be immediately free because there are an increasing number of other low-cost exporters ready to enter the market. However, the availability of EU surplus powdered milk on the world market remains unfair competition, limiting the growth of the dairy sector in developing countries and undermining the incentives for farmers to boost local production to keep track with the growing demand. SOURCES * http://www. fao. org/index_en. htm * http://faostat3. fao. org/home/index. html * http://www. usda. gov/wps/portal/usda/usdahome * http://www. clal. it/en/ * http://www. ifcnnetwork. org/en/start/index. php * http://www. globaldairytrade. info/Home. aspx * http://www. milkproduction. com/ * http://www. dairyco. org. uk/ * http://www. dairynz. co. nz/page/pageid/2145859475/International_Visitors * http://www. euromilk. org/eda/index. aspx * http://www. dairyaustralia. com. au/ *.